Theodoric the Great establishes the Ostrogothic Kingdom in Italy
527
Justinian I ascends as Byzantine Emperor, later initiating major legal and architectural reforms
711
The Islamic conquest of the Iberian Peninsula begins
732
Battle of Tours – Charles Martel halts the northward advance of Islamic forces
800
Coronation of Charlemagne as Emperor by Pope Leo III, uniting much of Western Europe
843
Treaty of Verdun divides the Carolingian Empire among Charlemagne’s grandsons
962
Otto I is crowned Holy Roman Emperor, reinforcing the idea of a revived Western Empire
1054
The Great Schism formally splits Christianity into Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox branches
1066
Norman Conquest of England – William the Conqueror defeats Harold II at Hastings
1095
Pope Urban II calls for the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont
1099
Crusaders capture Jerusalem during the First Crusade
1122
Concordat of Worms resolves the Investiture Controversy between the papacy and the Holy Roman Emperor
1147
Launch of the Second Crusade
1187
Battle of Hattin – Saladin defeats Crusader forces and recaptures Jerusalem
1190
Beginning of the Third Crusade, led by figures such as Richard the Lionheart
1215
Signing of the Magna Carta in England, laying foundations for constitutional governance
1229
End of the Albigensian Crusade with the Treaty of Paris, curbing heresy in southern France
1241
Mongol forces invade Eastern Europe (e.g., Battle of Legnica), affecting European political dynamics
1265
Simon de Montfort’s Parliament in England becomes an early model of representative government
1274
Second Council of Lyons discusses Church reforms and attempts at reuniting Eastern and Western Christianity
1302
Pope Boniface VIII issues the papal bull Unam Sanctam, asserting papal supremacy
1315
The Great Famine begins in Europe, severely impacting population and society
1347
Outbreak of the Black Death in Europe, drastically reducing the population
1378
Beginning of the Western Schism, splitting the Catholic Church with rival popes
1415
Execution of Jan Hus at the Council of Constance, sparking early reformist movements
1417
The Western Schism comes to an end with the election of a single pope
1453
Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire
1455
Gutenberg prints the first Bible, revolutionizing the spread of knowledge with movable type
1492
Christopher Columbus’s voyage leads to the European discovery of the Americas
1494
Treaty of Tordesillas divides the New World between Spain and Portugal
1517
Martin Luther nails his 95 Theses to the church door in Wittenberg, sparking the Protestant Reformation
1521
The Diet of Worms condemns Martin Luther’s teachings
1527
Sack of Rome by the troops of Charles V, symbolizing the decline of papal political power
1534
Henry VIII’s Act of Supremacy establishes the Church of England
1543
Copernicus publishes On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres, marking a shift in scientific thought
1545
The Council of Trent commences, launching the Counter-Reformation within the Catholic Church
1555
The Peace of Augsburg establishes the principle of cuius regio, eius religio in the Holy Roman Empire
The Spanish Armada is defeated by England, altering the balance of naval power in Europe
The Defenestration of Prague sparks the Thirty Years’ War across Central Europe
The English Civil War begins, leading to significant shifts in power and governance
The Peace of Westphalia ends the Thirty Years’ War and lays the groundwork for modern state sovereignty
The Glorious Revolution in England establishes a constitutional monarchy
The English Bill of Rights is enacted, reinforcing parliamentary power and individual rights
The Acts of Union unite England and Scotland into the Kingdom of Great Britain
The Treaty of Utrecht ends the War of Spanish Succession, reshaping the balance of power in Europe
Death of Louis XIV marks the end of an era of absolute monarchy in France
The Seven Years’ War begins, a global conflict that reconfigures colonial empires
The Battle of the Plains of Abraham decisively influences the fate of New France in North America
The approximate beginning of the Industrial Revolution, heralding vast economic and social changes
The American Revolutionary War begins
The American Declaration of Independence is adopted. Adam Smith publishes his magnum opus ‘An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations’
The Treaty of Paris ends the American Revolutionary War
The French Revolution begins, radically transforming French society and politics
The French National Assembly adopts the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
Napoleon Bonaparte seizes power in France during the coup of 18 Brumaire
Napoleon crowns himself Emperor of the French
The Battle of Austerlitz results in a decisive Napoleonic victory
The British Parliament passes the Slave Trade Act, abolishing the slave trade in the British Empire
The Mexican War of Independence begins against Spanish colonial rule
Napoleon invades Russia, a campaign that ultimately weakens his army
Napoleon abdicates, and the Congress of Vienna convenes to redraw the map of Europe
The Battle of Waterloo marks Napoleon’s final defeat and ends the Napoleonic Wars
The Greek War of Independence begins; simultaneously, the Mexican War of Independence concludes.
