-
Restored to the French throne after Napoleon, tried to balance monarchy with some liberal reforms.
-
Final defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte by British and Prussian forces, ending the Napoleonic Wars. -
A diplomatic meeting of European powers to restore monarchies and balance of power after Napoleon’s defeat. -
Last Bourbon monarch; his conservative policies led to the July Revolution.
-
Belgium declared independence from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands following a nationalist uprising. -
Greece gained independence from the Ottoman Empire after a long war supported by Britain, France, and Russia. -
Known as the “Citizen King,” he came to power after Charles X and was overthrown during the 1848 Revolution.
-
A German customs union led by Prussia that promoted economic unity and paved the way for political unification. -
A wave of liberal and nationalist revolts across Europe demanding democracy and national independence. -
Established after the 1848 revolution; it introduced universal male suffrage and elected Louis-Napoleon president.
-
Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte established an authoritarian regime and modernized France after a coup.
-
A short period of progressive liberal reforms in Spain under the reign of Isabella II.
-
Key Franco-Piedmontese victories against Austria that advanced the unification of northern Italy. -
Giuseppe Garibaldi led the Redshirts to victory in southern Italy, crucial for Italian unification. -
First king of a unified Italy, symbolizing national unity under a constitutional monarchy. -
Prussia and Austria defeated Denmark and took control of Schleswig and Holstein, increasing German influence. -
Also called the Seven Weeks’ War; Prussia defeated Austria and excluded it from German affairs. -
Conflict between France and Prussia; led to the fall of Napoleon III and the unification of Germany.
-
King of Prussia crowned Emperor of Germany after victory over France in Versailles. -
Imperial troops fired on peaceful demonstrators, shattering public trust in the Tsar and sparking nationwide unrest. -
Sailors rebelled against brutal discipline and poor conditions, becoming a powerful symbol of resistance to Tsarist authority. -
The Tsar promised civil liberties and created the Duma in an effort to calm strikes and revolutionary pressure. -
Germany’s action expanded the conflict and pulled the Russian Empire fully into World War I. -
The killing of the Austrian heir by a Serbian nationalist triggered diplomatic crises and alliance obligations, setting off World War I. -
This declaration followed failed diplomacy and marked the formal beginning of large-scale conflict in Europe. -
The new government was legitimized by Soviet representatives, transferring authority to Bolshevik leadership. -
Food shortages and wartime hardship led workers and soldiers to revolt, beginning the February Revolution. -
Facing military collapse and mass protests, Nicholas II stepped down, ending the Romanov dynasty. -
With German assistance, Lenin returned to lead the Bolsheviks and promote radical slogans like “Peace, Land, Bread.” -
The Bolsheviks overthrew the Provisional Government in a swift and organized uprising in Petrograd. -
The Bolsheviks halted fighting in World War I to focus on internal political consolidation. -
Former POWs rebelled along the Trans-Siberian Railway, helping trigger the Russian Civil War. -
Multiple factions fought across Russia, causing massive destruction, famine, and loss of life.
-
Russia exited World War I at the cost of vast territories, angering many Russians and former allies. -
The Bolsheviks executed Nicholas II and his family to prevent their rescue by anti-Bolshevik forces. -
The fighting stopped across Europe, and Russia’s Brest-Litovsk treaty was later canceled. -
Lenin allowed limited private trade and farming to revive the economy after years of war and famine. -
The Soviet Union was officially created, uniting several republics under Bolshevik control. -
Lenin’s death led to a fierce power struggle that eventually allowed Joseph Stalin to rise.