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The British government legalized enclosure, allowing landowners to fence off common lands. This changed rural society by pushing many small farmers off their plots and forcing them into wage labor. This helped accelerate urbanization since peasants migrated to cities. This represented a major breka forme arlier communal agricultural practices
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While slavery expanded in scale, the practice itself was a continuity from earlier centuries of European imperialism. Enslaved labor on plantations generated massive profits for European merchants and consumers. This had reinforced the hierarchies and exploitations that dated back so long ago. Therefore, it allowed the 18th century slave system to represent its continuation -
Banks such as the Bank of England grew in power and expanded credit systems across Europe. This allowed governments to fund wars and businesses to invest in new ventures. The increasing complexity of finance marked a shift away from earlier, smaller-scale lending and barter-based economies. This had reflected a chaning economic landscape
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Thanks to improved agriculture and public health practices, Europe’s population grew rapidly. Cities expanded as rural people sought work in workshops, factories, and trade. This represented a dramatic change from the smaller and more rural populations of earlier periods. The growth of cities accelerated economic modernization and altered family life -
New farming techniques such as crop rotation, the seed drill, and selective breeding dramatically increased agricultural productivity. This represented a major shift from traditional subsistence farming used for centuries. Allowed populations to grow and made laborers free. This marked a clear economic and social transformation -
Cottage industry expanded greatly during the 18th century as merchants outsourced textile production to rural households. This system represented continuity because European households had long produced goods domestically. Increased scale and commercialization had showed early signs of industrial revolution. This was a step towards modern industrial capitalism
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European economies grew wealthier through trade networks linking Africa, the Americas, and Europe. This dramatically expanded access to sugar, coffee, tobacco, and enslaved labor. The profits fueled cities like London, Liverpool, Bordeaux, and Amsterdam, reshaping social classes connected to commerce. This had represented a major economic shift -
Enlightenment thinkers questioned traditional hierarchies, religious authority, and absolute monarchy. Their writings encouraged new ideas of equality, rights, education, and rational governance. These intellectual shifts influenced middle-class culture and later political revolutions. The Enlightenment represents major social change from the rigid structures of earlier centuries. -
While Western Europe experienced economic modernization, serfdom remained deeply entrenched in Russia, Poland, and parts of the Habsburg Empire. Peasants were still bound to the land and owed labor obligations to nobles. This system reflected continuity with medieval social structures. It shows that not all of Europe changed at the same pace. -
By the late 18th century, factories using water power, especially in Britain—began to replace cottage industry. Machines like the spinning jenny and water frame accelerated textile production. This shift represented a fundamental break from centuries of hand-made manufacturing. It marked the beginning of the Industrial Revolution and profound economic and social change.