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The Olmecs emerged along the Gulf Coast of Mexico in modern-day Veracruz and Tabasco, becoming Mesoamerica’s first major civilization. They established cities like San Lorenzo, known for its colossal stone heads and ceremonial centers aligned to astronomical events. Their innovations—writing, calendars, and the concept of zero—laid the cultural foundation for later societies such as the Maya and Aztecs. -
The Zapotecs built Monte Albán on an artificially flattened mountaintop in the Oaxaca Valley, marking one of the earliest true urban centers in the Americas. The city featured plazas, pyramids, ball courts, and observatories aligned to celestial events. Monte Albán became a powerful political and religious capital, influencing trade and culture across southern Mexico. -
Teotihuacan, located in the Valley of Mexico, grew into one of the largest cities in the ancient world, home to over 100,000 people. It was famous for its Avenue of the Dead, Pyramid of the Sun, and Temple of the Feathered Serpent. The city’s art, urban planning, and religious influence spread widely, shaping Mesoamerican civilization long after its mysterious decline around 650 CE.
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During the Classic Period, Maya city-states like Tikal, Palenque, Copán, and Calakmul flourished across southern Mexico and Central America. They built towering pyramids, developed a complex hieroglyphic writing system, and mastered astronomy and mathematics. The period ended with the “Classic Maya Collapse,” likely due to drought, warfare, and resource depletion.
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As Monte Albán declined, the Mixtecs rose to prominence in Oaxaca, Puebla, and Guerrero. They were expert artisans, producing intricate gold jewelry, mosaics, and codices documenting royal genealogies and histories. Their craftsmanship and record-keeping preserved much of Mesoamerica’s pre-Columbian history through pictorial manuscripts like the Codex Zouche-Nuttall.
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The Toltecs established Tula (Tollan) in central Mexico, blending militarism with artistry. The city featured the iconic Atlantean warrior columns and temples dedicated to Quetzalcoatl. Toltec influence extended to the Yucatán, shaping the art and architecture of Chichen Itza, though their empire collapsed around 1150 CE due to droughts and invasions.
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The Mexica (Aztecs) founded Tenochtitlan on an island in Lake Texcoco, fulfilling a prophecy of an eagle on a cactus. Ingenious engineering projects—chinampas (floating gardens), causeways, and aqueducts—turned the city into a vast metropolis. Within two centuries, it became the center of a powerful empire dominating much of Mesoamerica through warfare and tribute.
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Sponsored by Spain’s Ferdinand and Isabella, Columbus set sail westward seeking a route to Asia and instead reached the Bahamas on October 12, 1492. He explored the Caribbean, encountering the Taíno people and claiming lands for Spain. His voyages began the era of European exploration, colonization, and the devastating Columbian Exchange.
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Hernán Cortés led a small force of Spaniards and indigenous allies to conquer the Aztec Empire. After a long siege, Tenochtitlan fell in 1521, marking the collapse of one of the greatest Mesoamerican civilizations. The Spanish built Mexico City atop the ruins, beginning centuries of colonial rule under the Viceroyalty of New Spain.
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Spain formally organized its American territories under the Viceroyalty of New Spain, with Mexico City as its capital. The colonial system imposed encomiendas, haciendas, and Catholic conversion campaigns on indigenous populations. This period reshaped society through racial hierarchies, cultural syncretism, and the lasting legacies of Spanish colonialism in the Americas.