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1815 - 38 states under a confederation
Cries for change across the German confederation led to the Frankfurt Assembly
Frankfurt Assembly (May 1848) - an all-German parliament that convened to draft a constitution for a united Germany
Proposed a constitution called for a German state with a parliamentary government and a hereditary emperor under a limited monarchy, with deputies to the parliament elected by universal male suffrage
The Frankfurt Assembly lacked support from the German rulers -
Didn't like having to interfere with other countries conflicts
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Created by METTERNICH but enforced in GERMANY
Carlsbad Decrees - Decrees designed by the to stop the spread of liberal and nationalist ideas
Main ideas
Fired all professors suspected of spreading radical ideas in universities
The government can monitor and suppress any and all writings that it deems a threat to the safety of the German states.
The will establish a commission to investigate the origin of revolutionary plots and suppress them -
Charles X (Bourbon) is overthrown by French liberals and replaced with a constitutional monarchy ruled by King Louise Philippe - successful
Belgium, which was annexed to the former Dutch Republic in 1815, rebelled and created an independent state - successful
Russians crush Polish attempts to establish an independent Polish nation - failure
Austrians crush revolts in Italian states - failure -
In 1815, aristocratic landowning classes dominated both houses of Parliament.
Passed by Parliament in 1832
English Reform Bill of 1832 - increased the number of male voters to include members of the industrial middle class in 1832
Helped Britain avoid revolution in 1848 and maintain stability through the 1850s and 1860s
Britain faced a rising Irish nationalist movement demanding increased Irish control over Irish internal affairs -
Factory Act of 1833 - limited child labor
Testimony - Medical examiners recommended law be made to protect the welfare of children working in British factories
Legislative laws that protects children from conspiracies made by employers and parents
Restrictions on child labor
Factory owners opposed this because it would significantly cut their profits -
Primarily made of working class citizens
Chartists demanded universal suffrage, secret ballot, annual parliaments, unrestricted choices, pay for parliament members through taxes, abolish property qualifications.
They hoped to petition peacefully without violence -
In the 1840s, when a fungus infected potatoes in Ireland, the Irish’s main source of food, a million Irish people died and another million migrated to the Americas
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Thomas Cook - founder of Thomas Cook and Son in 1841
Profited off travel and tourism -
After Pope Pius IX was elected in 1846, he instituted reforms that eased censorship that sparked liberal/reformative ideas in the people of Europe
Mikhail Gorbachev implemented policies that restricted Eastern European nations from intervening
Both individuals used their positions of power to create policies that created conditions that inspired and allowed revolutions to take place. -
Lombardy and Venetia
1848-1849 - Austrians suppress revolts in Lombardy, Venetia and some other Italian states
Multinational State - a state with a spectrum of different peoples
Hungarian Revolution of 1848
The Austrian Empire was a multinational state (including Germans, Czechs, Magyars (Hungarians), Slovaks, Romanians, Slovenes, Poles, Croats, Serbians, Ruthenians (Ukrainians), and Italians) held together by the German-speaking Hapsburg dynasty -
Cause
Ottoman Empire’s authority over the Balkans started to weaken
Russia had little access to warm-water ports and coveted this key port in the Balkans because it would allow Russia to become the major power in eastern Europe
1853 - the Russians invaded the Turkish Balkan provinces of Moldavia and Walachia
In response, the Ottoman Turks declare war on Russia, and Great Britain and France join against Russia just a year later
Effect
Russians lose and sign Treaty of Paris of 1856 -
Freed the serfs and allowing them to own property and marry freely
However, peasants often received poor land, leaving them land-starved and dissatisfied. -
The Italians gained control of Venetia through the Austro-Prussian War of 1866
The new Italian state sided with Prussia and when Prussia won, the Italians were given Venetia -
Nationalism challenged the multiethnic Austrian Empire, but the Hapsburgs crushed the 1848–1849 revolutions and restored autocratic rule
After defeat by Prussia in 1866, Austria had to make concessions to Hungarian nationalists, resulting in the Compromise of 1867
Created the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary
Individual constitution, legislature, government bureaucracy, and capital (Vienna for Austria and Budapest for Hungary) -
In 1870, during the Franco-Prussian War, French troops withdrew from Rome, allowing the Italian army to annex Rome on September 20, 1870
Rome became the capital of the Italian State. -
The Lumiere Brothers
Created the first motion picture in 1895 -
The revolutions in Europe in 1989 happened in 5 countries in Eastern Europe, including Albania, Yugoslavia, and Romania
Not as brutal as the Revolutions of 1848
Similarities between the revolutions
Led by middle class intellectuals
Overthrown regimes
Bans on political opposition
Large networks of secret state police
Both revolutions were caused by building anger over the political repression
Regimes gave in very quickly
Economic crises