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1543
Nicolaus Copernicus
Polish astronomer who proposed that the planets have the Sun as the fixed point to which their motions are to be referred; that Earth is a planet which, besides orbiting the Sun annually, also turns once daily on its own axis. -
Francis Bacon
By students of constitutional history for his power as a speaker in Parliament and in famous trials and as James I’s lord chancellor; and intellectually as a man who claimed all knowledge as his province and, after a magisterial survey, urgently advocated new ways by which man might establish a legitimate command over nature for the relief of his estate. -
Galileo Galilei
His formulation of (circular) inertia, the law of falling bodies, and parabolic trajectories marked the beginning of a fundamental change in the study of motion. -
Rene Descartes
Because he was one of the first to abandon Scholastic Aristotelianism, because he formulated the first modern version of mind-body dualism, from which stems the mind-body problem, and because he promoted the development of a new science grounded in observation and experiment, he is generally regarded as the founder of modern philosophy. -
Isaac Newton
In optics, his discovery of the composition of white light integrated the phenomena of colours into the science of light and laid the foundation for modern physical optics. In mechanics, his three laws of motion, the basic principles of modern physics, resulted in the formulation of the law of universal gravitation. -
John Locke
John Locke's most famous works are An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689), in which he developed his theory of ideas and his account of the origins of human knowledge in experience, and Two Treatises of Government (first edition published in 1690 but substantially composed before 1683). -
Montesquieu
Montesquieu's two most important works are the Persian Letters and The Spirit of the Laws. While these works share certain themes -- most notably a fascination with non-European societies and a horror of despotism -- they are quite different from one another, and will be treated separately. -
Denis Diderot
French man of letters and philosopher who, from 1745 to 1772, served as chief editor of the Encyclopédie, one of the principal works of the Age of Enlightenment. -
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Jean-Jacques Rousseau wrote the philosophical treatises A Discourse on the Origins of Inequality (1755) and The Social Contract (1762); the novels Julie; or, The New Eloise (1761) and Émile; or, On Education (1762); and the autobiographical Confessions (1782–1789), among other works. -
Voltaire
His most famous works included the fictitious Lettres philosophiques (1734) and the satirical novel Candide (1759). The former—a series of essays on English government and society—was a landmark in the history of thought. Today it is considered one of the great monuments of French literature. -
James Watt
In around 1764, Watt was given a model Newcomen engine to repair. He realised that it was hopelessly inefficient and began to work to improve the design. He designed a separate condensing chamber for the steam engine that prevented enormous losses of steam. -
Adam Smith
Smith wrote two classic works, The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759) and An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776). The latter, often abbreviated as The Wealth of Nations, is considered his magnum opus and the first modern work of economics. -
George Washington
What is George Washington known for? George Washington is often called the “Father of His Country.” He not only served as the first president of the United States, but he also commanded the Continental Army during the American Revolution (1775–83) and presided over the convention that drafted the U.S. Constitution. -
Thomas Jefferson
He slashed Army and Navy expenditures, cut the budget, eliminated the tax on whiskey so unpopular in the West, yet reduced the national debt by a third. He also sent a naval squadron to fight the Barbary pirates, who were harassing American commerce in the Mediterranean. -
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
His taste, his command of form, and his range of expression have made him seem the most universal of all composers; yet, it may also be said that his music was written to accommodate the specific tastes of particular audiences. -
Maximillien Robespierre
Robespierre briefly presided over the influential Jacobin Club, a political club based in Paris. He also served as president of the National Convention and on the Committee of Public Safety. Learn more about the French Revolution. -
Miguel Hidalgo
On September 16, 1810, carrying as a banner the Virgin of Guadalupe, Hidalgo uttered the cry of Dolores, which put the independence movement in motion. Accompanied by Allende, he managed to form an army made up of more than 40,000 people. They took Guanajuato and Guadalajara but decided not to occupy Mexico City. -
Simon Bolivar
He was one of the most prominent political figures in the emancipation of South America from the Spanish empire for his leading role in the independence of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela; and for his contribution to the founding processes of the present-day republics of Bolivia and Panama.